Confusing pairs, explained

は marks what you are talking about (the topic); が marks who or what does it (the subject), especially when that is the new or important part.

に marks where something is or where it ends up; で marks where an action happens.

With verbs of going, に and へ are usually interchangeable: に points at the destination, へ at the direction. Only へ can be followed by の.

を marks the object of an action verb; が marks the object of state words like 好き, 分かる, できる, ほしい and potential verbs.

と lists everything (A and B, nothing else); や lists examples (A, B and so on).

Both mean because. から is personal and direct; ので sounds objective and softer, so it suits polite explanations and requests.

ので gives a reason (because); のに gives a contradiction with frustration (even though). They look alike but mean nearly opposite things.

たら is the all-purpose if or when; ば focuses on the condition needed; と is for automatic results and facts; なら responds to a topic or plan with advice.

Stem + そう: it looks like (from what you see). Plain + そうだ: I heard. ようだ / みたい: it seems (your judgement). らしい: apparently (from what you heard, with distance).

ために is for a goal you act on directly (deliberate verbs); ように is for a result you can only hope for (potential verbs, ない, and things outside your control).

Intransitive verb + ている describes a state as it is (窓が開いている); transitive verb + てある says someone set it up that way on purpose (窓が開けてある).

Both mean only. だけ is neutral and takes any verb; しか always takes a negative verb and suggests it is not enough.

知る is having information (knowing a fact or a person); 分かる is understanding or realising something. "I don't know" is 知りません for facts you never learned, 分かりません for things you can't work out.

Transitive verbs (他動詞) take を and have a doer: ドアを開ける. Intransitive verbs (自動詞) take が and just happen: ドアが開く.

もう means already (or no longer, with a negative); まだ means still (or not yet, with a negative).

こ- is near me, そ- is near you (or just mentioned), あ- is over there away from both of us, and ど- asks which.

Read 何 as なん before sounds t, d and n, and before counters (何時, 何人); read it as なに before most particles (何を, 何が) and on its own.

私 (わたし) is the neutral, polite "I" for anyone; 僕 (ぼく) is a softer male "I"; 俺 (おれ) is a rough, casual male "I" used with friends.

Hiragana writes Japanese words and grammar (particles, verb endings); katakana writes foreign loanwords, foreign names, sound effects and emphasis. Both spell the same sounds.